HISTORY OF UKRAINE

Early Times Miocene, Pliocene and Pleistocene Periods

During the Miocene geological period, some 15 million years ago, most of Ukraine was covered by sea. Toward the end of this period, about ten million years ago, the seas receded to the approximately present day coasts of Black, Azov and Caspian seas to form one big sea. The climate was warm and humid. Lush vegetation covered the ground and large animals roamed the land.

Then some 5 million years ago, during the Pliocene geological period, the climate began to cool. Many plants and animals disappeared and only those, which could adapt to lower temperatures, such as fury animals, remained. As the climate cooled further about 1 million years ago during the Pleistocene Period, commonly known as the Ice Age, the ground froze up and ice sheets covered most of the northern parts of Ukraine.

When the ice retreated, life started to reappear. Traces of human habitation in Ukraine, dating back at least 30 thousand years, became evident as a result of geological excavations. Primitive stone tools, carvings from mammoth tusks, arrowheads made from flint stone, earthenware, bronze tools and gold jewelry found in different layers of earth enabled geologists to reconstruct the way of life of early Ukrainian man. The evidence indicates that they at first relied mostly on hunting and fishing for existence. Then gradually, they began to make utensils, kept domestic animals, constructed dwellings and cultivated the soil.

3000 BC - 200 BC Period

The first known inhabitants of southern and central Ukraine were a pastoral and agricultural people, part of a culture that inhabited the area east and north of the Black Sea around 3000 BC. Most settlements were in the regions of the wooded steppe along the Dnieper, Bug and Dniester Rivers. Some of the larger villages contained as many as one to two hundred huts arranged in concentric circles with walls made of wattle and clay supported by close-set timbers. A middle-sized hut contained two separate rooms. Clay ovens were used for cooking and warming the huts in the winter. Agriculture was based on cultivation of wheat, barley and corn. These early farmers also bred cattle, horses, goats and pigs. Starting around 1000 BC, the southern and central Ukrainian steppe was successively invaded for the next 800 years by related tribes who came from Central Asia and spoke different dialects of the Indo-Iranian language. Unlike their predecessors who were agricultural people, these tribes were nomadic, generally moving over long periods from east to west. In many instances a stronger tribe ruled over other tribes in a feudal fashion. The movement of these tribes call to mind a billiard table on which one ball strikes another and stops, as it puts the other in motion. Some of the better known tribes were the Cimmerians [circa 900 BC], the Scythians [from about 800 BC] and Sarmatians [circa 300 BC].

The first to infiltrate the Ukrainian steppe were mounted nomads known as Cimmerians who came from northern Iran. These mounted horsemen eventually became dominant on the steppe and subjugated the ancient pastoral people.

Sometime around 800 BC, another horse-back riding nomadic tribe, related to the Cimmerians and known as Scythians, moved westward from Central Asia and pushed the Cimmerians out. The Scythians, a savage, warlike tribe with tattooed bodies depicting real and imaginary beasts, were skilled horsemen and archers. They also used horse drawn covered wagons and maintained well traveled routes that connected their settlements. At their height around 500 BC, the Scythians controlled most of the area of modern Ukraine. They spoke the Indo-Iranian language, but had no system of writing. They rode horses with no stirrups or saddles [only saddle cloths] and their garments were of padded and quilted leather with trousers tucked into short boots, open tonics and pointed hoods. Scythian women dressed in much the same fashion as the men and at times fought alongside of them in battle. The burial of the tribe's chief was an elaborate mourning ceremony. The corpse, embalmed in wax and aromatic herbs and laid on a horse-drawn bier, would be taken on a solemn procession through the dead chief 's territory. The Scythians dominated the Ukrainian steppe north of the Black Sea until about 300 BC, when a kindred tribe, the Sarmatians, moved in from Central Asia and started to push the Scythians from the steppe.

By 200 BC, the Sarmatians gained control over most of the area. The impact of the Scythians and the Sarmatians on the Slavonic people living in adjacent areas to the north was important and lasting, and the vocabulary of the Slavonic languages comprises many words of the Scythian/ Sarmatian origin.

200 BC - 850 AD Period

At about the same time as the Sarmatians controlled the southern areas of Ukraine [circa 200 BC], the Slavs started to become prominent in the marshes bordering today's Belarus. The Slavs, a sedentary, agricultural people who spoke a branch of the Indo-European language occupied a large area in northern Europe stretching from the Dnieper to the Vistula Rivers. There they were exposed to various cultural influences from the Baltic tribes in the north, the Scythians/Sarmatians from the south and the Goths from the west. From about 150 AD, the Slavic tribes began to expand in all directions. Some set out to the west reaching the Elbe River and became ancestors of the Czechs, Slovaks and Poles. Others moved south and became known as Serbs, Croats, Slovaks, Macedonians and Montenegrins. Others moved northwest and became Lithuanians, Latvians and Estonians. The last group, the East Slavs, remained in generally the same area what is now Belarus, Ukraine and Western Russia. Over time many ethnically diverse nomadic peoples migrated into this region or occupied it for long periods [Goths circa 100 AD], [Huns circa 370 AD], [Avers circa 600 AD], Khazars [circa 700 AD]. However, the East Slavs remained and eventually became dominant.

Kievan Rus Period [850-1360]

By the 9th century, Scandinavian people known as Varangians began to penetrate through the Baltic regions into Eastern Europe. Rurik, the leader of the Varangians, some of whom were also known as Rus, established himself in Novgorod [currently northwest Russia] around 860. In the 870's, Oleg succeeded Rurik as leader of the Varangians at Novgorod. Under Oleg the Varangians made their way south along the Dnieper River and around 879 settled in Kiev, thus establishing the State of Kievan Rus. Oleg made Kiev his capital and set out to unite the Slavic tribes along the Dnieper waterway, freeing them around 910 from the overlordship of the Khazars. He conducted military expeditions to the shores of the Caspian Sea and concluded commercial treaties with the Byzantine Empire, making trade with the empire a major factor in the Kievan economy. His dealings with the Byzantineans opened the way to Greek cultural penetration of Kievan Rus, as Greece at that time was part of the Byzantine Empire. In 912, Oleg was succeeded by Rurik's son Igor. Many of Igor's military campaigns were not successful and in 945 he was killed by the Derivians, a rebellious Slavic tribe, while collection tribute. After Igor's death, his wife Olga served as regent for their son Sviatoslav until he came of age in 962. She is known for her obliteration of the Derivians, the tribe that killed her husband. Before she came into power, Kievan Rus was a pagan society. In 964, Olga went to Constantinople and while there she converted to Christianity, being baptized by the Patriarch [the highest figure in the Eastern Church] with the Roman Emperor Constantine VII himself as the Godfather. Despite her urgings, her son refused to convert, although he did not oppose the new religion. She apparently had a huge influence, however, on her grandson Vladimir the Great who in 988 made Christianity the official religion of Kievan Rus. In 1547, the Orthodox Church named Olga of Kiev a Saint and an equal to the Apostles. In 964, Olga established her son Sviatoslav on the throne.

Sviatoslav was an able and courageous prince who fought Asian hordes in the east and Bulgarians in the west. He divided his state between his sons which allowed him to continue his expeditions and battles. When he died in 972 during a battle with the Pechenegs, a central Asia semi-nomadic Turkic tribe, his sons fought between themselves for control of Kievan Rus.

In 980, Prince Vladimir, Sviatoslav's youngest son, defeated all his brothers, and unified the country into one powerful state with Kiev as its capital. This signaled the beginning of the Golden Age of Kievan Rus. Vladimir continued to expand his territories beyond his father's extensive domain and build numerous fortresses to protect the state. During his reign he conquered and united distant Slavic tribes and waged successful wars on the Lithuanians, the Bulgars, the Pechenegs and the Byzantines in Crimea. Vladimir produced silver and gold coins with his portrait on one side and the trident on the other side. The Trident is the coat of arms of present day Ukraine. Originally a pagan, Vladimir adopted Christianity in 988, probably influenced by the political and economic advantages of an alliance with Christian Byzantium. His baptism in 988 was followed by his marriage to Anna, sister of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II. After the wedding he returned Crimea to Byzantium. Vladimir renounced his pagan ways and made Greek Orthodox Christianity the religion of his people. He started to convert the population, which had up to then worshipped pagan gods, and in the process many inhabitants of Kiev were baptized. Vladimir devoted the remainder of his life to building churches, including the splendid Cathedral of Tithes [989] in Kiev, and the establishment of schools and libraries.

After Vladimir's death in 1015, fighting and assassinations between his sons ensued, resulting in victory of Prince Yaroslav over his brother Sviatopolk in 1019. A shrewd statesman, known as Yaroslav the Wise, he further consolidated the power and prestige of the Kievan Rus. He regained West Halychyna [Galicia] from the Poles, crushed the nomadic invaders Pachenegs and suppressed rebellions by Lithuanian and Finnish tribes. At home he encouraged learning, codified laws, erected magnificent buildings and churches, including the famous Cathedral of St. Sophia in Kiev. Yaroslav was in close contact with European dynasties and his daughters were married to Harold III of Norway, Andrew I of Hungary and Henry I of France. During his lengthy reign [1019-1054], Kievan Rus reached the zenith of its cultural splendor and military power. Before his death in 1054, Yaroslav divided his kingdom between his heirs designating the oldest, Iziaslav I, as Grand Duke of Kiev. The others were told to obey Iziaslav as they had their father, but civil war ensued and Kievan Rus split into principalities.

In 1054, the eastern and western churches separated [known as the East West Schism], as the western regions of Ukraine became the focus of intense rivalry between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. This religious rivalry created a divide between the eastern and western parts of Ukraine which still exists today.

In 1097, the princes of the various principalities agreed to stop fighting between themselves, and in 1103 they united their forces under the leadership of Prince Monomakh, a grandson of Yaroslav the Great. After his death in 1125, Ukraine again broke up into numerous principalities with only nominal allegiance to the Prince of Kiev, occupied by sons of Monomakh on rotational basis. When Yurij Dolgorukiy, the Prince of Kiev and one of Monomakh's sons, died in 1157, his son Andrey Bogolyubsky did not take up his father's throne in Kiev, but rather remained as Prince of Vladimir. Andrey tried to unite the Kievan Rus lands, including Kiev and Novgorod under his authority. However, pursuing such a policy led Andrey to bitter disputes with Kiev. In 1169, Andrey attacked and conquered Kiev. Much of the city was destroyed and residents were taken captive as slaves to Vladimir. He then established his capital in Vladimir, near the present site of Moscow, thus originating the current Russian State.

By the year 1200, Kievan Rus was divided into three centers of power, Halychyna and Volhynia in the west near Poland, the trade city of Novgorod in the north and Vladimir in the forests of northeast. The western parts of Ukraine, Halychyna and Volhynia, gradually emerged as the leading principalities. Prince Roman ruled there in 1199 and his sons succeeded in uniting both principalities into one rich and powerful state.

About the year 1223, hordes of Mongols and Tartars started to invade parts of Kievan Rus. Some princes of what remained of Kievan Rus united and fought together to expel this new horde. After defeating the combined armies of Kiev and Halychyna, the Mongol forces retreated probably to plan for the successor to Genghis Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire who died in 1227. About 14 years later, the Mongol armies returned under the leadership of Batu Khan. In the campaigns of 1238-1240 they swept away most of Kievan Rus, burned cities and killed great numbers of the population including the ruling houses and the church hierarchy. The Mongols imposed taxes and laws, often raiding towns to suppress rebellions. Between 1250 and 1300, the eastern principalities of Kievan Rus experienced periods of submission alternating with rebellion. Yet the culture and people survived despite vassalage to the Mongol Golden Horde.

In the west, Poland in 1349 managed to occupy parts of Halychyna and Volhynia. At about the same time, Lithuanian princes intensified their takeover of eastern principalities of Kievan Rus weakened by Mongol invasions. Finally about the year 1360, the Prince of Kiev was overthrown by Algirdas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, thus essentially ending what was left of Kievan Rus.

From here on the eastern and western regions of Kievan Rus have separate histories. Due to the fact that the political and cultural core of Kievan Rus was located on the territory of modern Ukraine, Ukrainian historians and scholars consider Kievan Rus to be the founding of the Ukrainian State. This is also the position of the author of this book. Russian historians, on the other hand, consider Kievan Rus the first period of Russian history. Furthermore, all historical events described from here on that occurred on territories of modern Ukraine will be treated as having occurred in Ukraine.

Period of Polish-Lithuanian and Russian Rule [1360-1795] Rise and Fall of Cossacks

After the breakup of Kievan Rus, by about the middle of the 14th century, today's Ukrainian territories came under the rule of the Kingdom of Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Tatar Golden Horde of Mongolia.

During the rule of King Casimir III Poland expanded further to the east and, starting by about 1360, occupied some of the former regions of Kievan Rus including all of Halychyna and Volhynia. These areas are part of today's western and northwestern Ukraine including the city of Lviv located in Halychyna. Under Polish rule these regions were subjected to exploitation and colonization by influx of Polish, German and Jewish peoples who took over the properties and offices from local boyars, members of Ukraine's highest level of society and state administrations. Catholic Poland also exerted enormous pressure on the Orthodox population to accept Catholicism.

About the same time, Lithuanian princes intensified their takeover of former Kievan Rus eastern regions, which largely correspond to today's central and eastern parts of Ukraine. By 1370's, most of the principalities of these regions, including Kiev, came under the control of Algirdas, the Grand Duke of Lithuania. The Lithuanian State of the late 14th century became primarily binominal consisting of Lithuania and former Kievan Rus principalities corresponding to modern Ukraine and Belarus.

The Lithuanian princes were just rulers and Ukraine flourished under their rule. In many cases the Lithuanians were assimilated and they adopted the local customs, language and religion. The Ukrainian princes were Orthodox and many Lithuanian princes and nobles converted to Orthodoxy, even some that resided in Lithuania proper. The Ukrainian people did not resist the Lithuanian rulers and they appreciated their protection from Tartars in the south, Poland in the west and Moscow Duchy in the north. Historical territories of former principalities were mostly preserved and considerable autonomy was given to them under Lithuanian rule.

The Lithuanian rule over Ukrainian regions did not extend to cover the steppes bordering the Black Sea and Crimea. These regions continued to be ruled by the Mongolian Tatar Golden Horde. The Tatar rule was largely indirect, limited to extraction of taxes and tribute whose collection was delegated to local princes.