CHAPTER 1
Divine Trial Narratives in the Qur'an: A Typology
The Qur'anic approach to the notion of Divine trial becomes visible mostly in the bala and fitna narratives. These narratives reveal that bala is a fundamental pillar of the creational structure of the Cosmos, functioning as an instrument to actualize the purposes of the Creator. The Qur'an clearly illustrates that humankind, regardless of religious belief, individually and collectively as a community, will be put to the test as part of their human experience: "He created death and life to test you, and reveal which of you does best" (Q. 67:2). The depth and comprehensiveness of the concept of bala in the Qur'an reveals that even the prophets are not exempted from this meaningful encounter: "... And we tried you [Moses] with many tests" (Q.20:40).
In this introduction, the notion of bala will be discussed in various themes as it can be observed from the Qur'an. These include: the link between bala and the creational structure of the universe both as a whole, and in relation to man's creation, means by which bala is actualized in man's life, and bala as punishment.
Trial and Tribulation: Purpose in Divine Plan
The strength and universality of the concept of bala within the Qur'anic context posits bala as one of the components of the formation of the universe: "It is He who created the heavens and the earth in six Days — and His throne was on water — so as to test you, which of you does best. Yet [Prophet] if you say to them, 'You will be resurrected after death', the disbelievers are sure to answer, this is clearly nothing but sorcery!" (Q. 11:7). Furthermore, the notion of bala is intertwined with the Qur'anic concept of purposefulness of the Cosmic Creation. Repeatedly the Qur'an reminds us that the Creation of the universe is purposeful, decisive, and not in vain: "It was not without purpose that we created the heavens and the earth and everything in between!" (Q. 38:27). It can further be noticed from the Qur'an that the creation of man (insdn) is distinguished from the rest of the Creation, for the reason that his inner-nature (fitra) is composed of the Divine Spirit, hence, making him the highest creature in rank: "... I have fashioned him, and breathed my spirit into him ..." (Q. 15:29).
As Rahman points out, "While the purpose of man is to serve God, i.e., to develop his higher potentialities in accordance with the 'command' (amr) of God, through choice, he must be provided with adequate means of sustenance and of finding the right way." To this end, the very first Qur'anic revelations point out that the essential knowledge, which is imperative for man's survival, is ingrained in his nature by the Merciful God: "Your Lord is the Most Bountiful one who taught by the pen, who taught man what he did not know" (Q. 96:3-5). Additionally, the endowment of knowledge is illustrated in the Qur'anic narrative of Adam's creation, whereby the angels are commanded to bow down before him (Q.2:30-34). According to Yusuf Ali, "Allah teaches us new knowledge at every given moment. Individuals learn more and more day by day; nations and humanity at large learn fresh knowledge at every stage. This is even more noticeable and important in the spiritual world". To this fact, in an early Meccan Sura, the Qur'an exposes a colorful portrait of man's soul, illustrating the extent of man's capability in making his spiritual destiny. It is worth mentioning here that it is in accordance with the concept of man's spiritual development emphasized in the Qur'an that the present work will discuss the notion of bala from the Muslim mystical perspective in Chapter Four to shed light on the wholly positive nature of bala as it relates to man's creation and his spiritual journey.
By creation of the soul (nafs), and granting it the power to distinguish between right and wrong, God has positioned man in charge of his own life. His spiritual success is dependent on whether he makes the "choice" to purify his soul or corrupt it: "... And by the soul and how He formed it and inspired it [to know] its own rebellion and piety! The one who purifies his soul succeeds, and the one who corrupts it fails" (Q. 91:7-10). Hence, having the necessary cognition to create knowledge, and the ability to differentiate between wrong and right, man's crucial test, Rahman informs us, is "whether he can control history towards good ends or whether he will succumb to its vagaries." Thus, it may be noted that the Qur'an approaches the notion of bala, as a means to constantly remind man of his mission on earth, and his final return. "Did you think we had created you in vain, and that you would not be brought back to us?" (Q.23:115).
The instrumentality of bala as it relates to serving the purposes of God, whereby the Divine Plan is actualized, therefore, is the context in which the Qur'an approaches the concept of bala. It can also be observed that the underlying principle of bala seems to arise from the notion of "Divine Guidance" (hedaya) which is the ultimate goal of the Qur'an, guidance for humanity (hudan li'l-nas). The notion of Divine guidance and its direct relationship to bala is discussed in more detail in other parts of this study. Furthermore, it is in conforming to the instrumentality aspect of bala and its entirely positive nature that this concept must further be discussed in light of the theological debates. Consequently, to shed light on the all-inclusive meaning of bala, Chapter Five of the book is tasked with the interpretation of bala as it relates to the overall "problem of evil" from the Muslim theodicean thought in general, and the Ghazalian perspective formulated in his famous dictum of "the best of all possible worlds" in particular.
Means of Divine Trial
While the vast majority of the Qur'anic narratives in which the concept of bala is elucidated point to manifestation of bala through adversity and hardship, nevertheless, the Qur'an noticeably reveals that bala will, without a doubt, present itself in prosperity and abundance as well: "We will test you all through the bad and the good" (Q. 21:35).
The manifestation and objects of bala are clearly represented in the Qur'an, signifying all that matters to man, wealth, power, health, offspring, etc., are means by which man will be put to the "test"; how man perceives the specific circumstances of his life is of tremendous importance in the Qur'an. As the commentator Tabarsi writes, "This world is the realm of tests and afflictions. People of faith will face trials in order that they may develop patience and know spiritual blessings." To this fact, the Qur'an points out that, in reality, "everything" on this earth is meant for the purpose of the test: "We have adorned the earth with attractive things so that We may test people to find out which of them do best, but we shall reduce all this to barren dust" (Q. 18:7).
Divine Trial as Punishment
The popular understanding of bala and fitna carries a negative connotation and, for the most part, represents an undesirable and unconstructive image. This perception may be viewed from different perspectives. Whether an individual is experiencing a hardship, an illness or financial difficulty, or an entire community is affected by a natural tragedy, such as an earthquake, the popular tendency is to view the situation as a punishment from God. This accepted perception goes further to justify the hardship as a deserved punishment, which is a direct consequence of sinful conduct on the part of the recipient of the calamity. However, as it can be observed from the following verse, the Qur'an indisputably clarifies this misperception: "No blame will be attached to the blind, the lame, and the sick" (Q. 24:61). Therefore, as Bowker points out, "the Qur'an warns the faithful not to make the mistake of Job's friends and to assume that where they see suffering there also they see sin". The overall Qur'anic view which noticeably identifies the purpose of adversities in human lives as tests and not punishment can be elucidated from the following narrative: "We shall certainly test you with fear and hunger, and loss of property, lives, and crops; but [Prophet], give good news to those who steadfast" (Q. 2:155).
Nevertheless, the Qur'an includes a small number of narratives which support that suffering may, in fact, be a punishment from God. Appealing to past history, these "punishment narratives" illustrate that as a result of continuous persistence in disbelief and rejection of the prophetic message, an entire community is eradicated. According to the Qur'an, God's sending of a prophet may be accompanied by calamities afflicting the community. However, the purpose of the tragedies or misfortunes is to serve as supporting evidence for the warnings of the prophet, thereby providing the opportunity to embrace the prophetic message. However, as a result of peoples' choice of ignoring the prophet's warnings, and their endless tenacity on the disbelief path, God eradicates the hardship, bestows prosperity, and whilst people are ignorant of the Divine, wills the total destruction of the community through a natural disaster.
Whenever we sent a prophet to a town, we afflicted its [disbelieving] people with suffering and hardships, so that they might humble themselves [before God], and then we changed their hardship to prosperity, until they multiplied. But then they said, "hardship and affluence also befell our forefathers", and so we took them suddenly, unawares. (Q.7:94-95)
Although annihilation of a particular community is perceived to be a punishment from God, nevertheless, this paradigm serves a decisive role within a broader scope: a test and a learning opportunity for other addressee communities. The Qur'an repeatedly demonstrates that the underlying principle of the hardships was meant for the community to become humble in the way of God, transform their attitude, and willingly accept the monotheistic message. Time and again, the Qur'an reflects on human understanding with regard to signs (ayat) from God; in this case, asking people to think about the adversity and the prosperity visited on them, and recognize the Divine purpose. Had they not ignored the signs which resulted in their insistence on the wrong path, they would have been guided to salvation. Instead, their heedlessness leads them to destruction. It needs to be emphasized that the term bala is not utilized in the "punishment narratives"; nonetheless, the popular understanding equates these calamities with bala.
Man's Response to Divine Trial
In the case of the individual who is going through hardship, by and large, the circumstance is perceived as an undesirable condition, with no benefit or purpose. The person views himself as the victim of an objectionable occasion, someone unlucky who is being humiliated by God: "And man, when his Lord tries him through the restriction of his provision, he says, 'my Lord has humiliated me'" (Q. 89:16). Identifying a particular situation as misfortune, which has happened due to bad luck, the person refrains to reflect on the circumstance, and perhaps, fails to discover a meaningful purpose with an opportunity to grow. In the language of the Qur'an, whether the individual is experiencing a hardship, or enjoying life in prosperity (Q. 89: 15-16), he is going through a bala. What is expected of man is to act in accordance with the Will of God: patience during hardship, and humility and kindness in prosperity. However, man, more often than not, gets "puffed up in prosperity and depressed in adversity, putting false values on this world's goods".
This analogy, of course, lends itself not only to the individual who, in any given situation, might be experiencing the bala (Divine test), but equally to those who are observing a particular circumstance. In other words, man is always going through some sort of test; either he himself is the direct subject of the trial, or his response towards the ordeal and / or prosperity of other fellow human beings indirectly becomes his own bala. To illustrate the latter, the Qur'an speaks of people who are not willing to spend part of their wealth in charity, thus not realizing that their bala is with their wealth. Therefore, their refusal of help to the needy is a testimony to their failure in the test: "And when they are told, 'give to others out of what God has provided for you', the disbelievers say to the believers, why should we feed those that God could feed if He wanted? You must be deeply misguided" (Q. 36:47).
Contrary to the popular perception of bala and fitna, the Qur'an paints a very different portrait of these terms, to the extent that it regards bala as part of the structure of Divine Creation, and a very purposeful encounter for human beings. The Qur'anic view on bala as a fundamental pillar of the creation of the Cosmos is exposed through many narratives whereby not only adversity is viewed as trial; prosperity is also a condition in which man is put to the test. This aspect of bala, as part of the "Divine Plan", and the fact that all human beings, including the prophets, encounter diverse purposeful trials in both adversity and prosperity, will be an essential part of this study.
Preceding the linguistic overview of the terms bala and fitna, it should be noted that the Qur'anic view on the general notion of trial is presented in more than one hundred narratives by utilizing four verbs and / or verbal nouns. However, by and large, the notion of Divine trial becomes known in bala and fitna narratives; therefore, this typology is concerned only with these two major terms. The two fewer used terms, each appearing only in two Qur'anic accounts, are: mahhasa, trial, (Q. 3:141; 3:154) and imtahana, test, (Q. 49:3; 60:10). Nonetheless, based on the context and the level of their relevancy, these two terms will be highlighted during the discussion of various categories and types of bala.
A Linguistic Overview of bala and fitna
Edward William Lane describes the term bala as: "God tried, proved, or tested him, [by, or with, good], or [by, or with, evil]; for God tries his servant by, or with, a benefit, to test his thankfulness; and by, or with, a calamity, to test his patience". According to Abdolnabi Ghayyem, bala simply means "to put to the test". Although the term bala or ibtild is not referenced in the Encyclopedia of the Qur'an, the notion of trial is cross-referenced to bala and the definition of "challenge to be endured" is given.
Prior to providing the reader with the various meanings of fitna, it has to be noted that, historically, Muslim culture portrays a symbolic meaning of fitna to refer to "the great rift in the community shortly after the death of the prophet". Therefore, more often than not, the use of the word fitna carries a negative connotation. This study is not, however, concerned with the cultural aspects of fitna as it applies within the historical context, but rather will focus on the Qur'anic aspect of the term as it relates to Divine trials and tests.
An overall review of the meaning of the Arabic word fitna reveals multiple definitions. According to Lane, its most general meaning seems to be:
Melting of gold and of silver in order to separate, or distinguish, the bad from the good, it signifies a trial, or probation; and affliction, distress, or hardship; and [particularly] an affliction whereby one is tried, proved, or tested.
The Arabic lexicon of Ibn-Manzur defines a similar meaning for fitna:
It denotes a process of extracting and purging the impure from the pure in the metal. This basic idea of purification was then extended to the moral condition of humanity where a demanding situation acted as a watershed, a moral test or trial.
