CHAPTER 1

WHERE WE'VE BEEN

God is my strength and power, and He makes my wayperfect.

—2 Samuel 22:23

No people come into possession of a culture without havingpaid a heavy price for it.

—James Baldwin

I am America. I am the part you won't recognize. But getused to me. Black, confident, cocky; my name, not yours;my religion, not yours; my goals, my own; get used tome.

—Muhammad Ali, 1975

A wise man once said, "If you don't know your history, you're boundto repeat it." Let's face it, knowing the origin of your people and theirmany accomplishments is vitally important, because it creates prideand defines culture within a people by serving as an example of what ispossible. Most will agree that the history of African Americans is likeno other ethnic group in America. We were the only people deliberatelybrought to this country for the sole purpose of servitude. You may bewondering, What about the thousands of free people who lived in Americaas free citizens or indentured servants? At the start of the RevolutionaryWar, it is reported that there were over five hundred thousand blacksliving, earning a wage and owning land like their white neighbors. Atthe time of the American Revolution, many African Americans hadbeen living alongside white colonizers for about one hundred years withlittle to no problems.

They took pride in their land and belongings, and they were justas committed to freeing themselves from British rule as their whiteneighbors. You might be wondering, Then what happened? I do not wantthis book to be just another lesson in history, but one that illustratesthe leadership and tenacity blacks demonstrated throughout America'sturbulent past. As a professional military officer, I highly recommendthat you know your history! You need to understand that black historyis American history, and you need to know the stories of Peter Salemand Crispus Attucks from the Revolutionary War, all the way throughto our recent heroes from the Global War on Terrorism. You need toknow about the blacks who fought in every war since the RevolutionaryWar, the 5,000 blacks who supported the Confederacy, and the 186,000blacks who fought for the Union during the Civil War.

Blacks have fought in every major military conflict in which Americahas ever engaged. It is imperative that you take time out and learn thestories of the Buffalo Soldiers and Tuskegee Airmen. I don't rememberlearning of any of these details while in high school or during collegeundergraduate training. It took me coming on active duty and seekingout this knowledge on my own by holding conversations with otherblack officers and investing time in the library to fill this void.

As a child growing up in the 1960s and '70s, I watched war movieswith my father, and even though I knew my grandfathers and fatherfought in World War II and Korea, respectively, we never saw blacksplaying a significant part in war movies, so I knew that account wasnot accurate. My brothers and I would ask my father about what it waslike being in the army and having the opportunity to live in foreigncountries and fight in wars. I can clearly remember him talking aboutthe exotic foods and the friends he made during this period of his life.All of these stories made a huge impression on me at an early age andcreated a deep desire to serve in the military.

What you need to remember about your history is that blackAmericans have always answered the call to their nation's defense.Throughout the United States of America's history, the governmentturned its back on black Americans. But these brave people continuedto gallantly serve because they had dreams and visions of a betterfuture. We need to remember that formal education was not allowedfor these blacks during the first two hundred years of their existencein this country. Blacks had a definitive purpose for serving in ourmilitary; they desired a better life. Any life was better than living inbondage or working for meager wages in unfair living conditions. Theprevailing thought of the day was: if you are going to die, then die forsomething. Which would you prefer, dying as a slave or as a military manserving your country and being known for holding a recognizable andrespectable profession?

American Revolutionary War, 1775 – 1783

Let's take a quick look back and see how African Americanscontributed to developing this country. Did you know that more blacksactually fought for the British Army and the American colonials? Blackstypically sided with whoever promised freedom for their service. TheBritish actively recruited slaves and promised to reward them withtheir freedom at the conclusion of the Revolutionary War. Historywrites that blacks played an active role five years before the AmericanRevolution began. On March 5, 1770, Crispus Attucks confronted acrowd of angry British soldiers while leading a group of colonists thatwere protesting the laws of England. The British soldiers, led by PrivateHugh Montgomery of the British regulars, fired on the colonist, killingAttucks and four other white settlers. These five men were buried inthe first integrated grave in the New World, which is located in BostonCommons, Massachusetts.

We all know that the Continental Army eventually won the warand defeated the British and that slavery continued. George Washingtoninitially prevented blacks from serving in the Continental Army. Itwas not until the enormous problems with desertion prior to ValleyForge that General Washington decided to recant on this policy andallowed blacks entry into the army. During this period it is reportedthat over one hundred thousand slaves escaped to Indian lands inCanada and Florida. In 1776, Thomas Jefferson reported that he losta large percentage of his slaves. In May 1775, one month after blackshad fought at Lexington and Concord, the Committee for Safety of theMassachusetts Legislature presented a legislative resolution that read:

Resolved, that it is the opinion of this Committee, asthe contest now between Great Britain and the Coloniesrespects the liberties and privileges of the latter, which theColonies are determined to maintain, that the admissionof any persons, as soldiers, into the army now raising, butonly such as are freemen, will be inconsistent with theprinciples that are to be supported, and brought dishonoron the colony, and that no slaves be admitted into thisarmy, upon any consideration whatever.

This position on blacks serving was not shared by the British, whosuffered manpower and resource shortages. On November 7, 1775, JohnMurray, the earl of Dunmore, issued a proclamation:

And I do hereby further declare all intended [sic] servants,Negroes and others (appertaining to Rebels) free, andthat are able and willing to bear arms, they joining HisMajesty's Troops, as soon as may be, for the more speedilyreducing of the colony to a proper sence [sic] of their duty,to His Majesty's crown and dignity.

Shortly after the Dunmore proclamation, George Washingtonauthorized recruiting of free Negroes "desirous of enlisting." Slaveparticipation was still forbidden, and Washington reinforced this generalorder on February 21, 1776. Many blacks fought under Lord Dunmore'sEthiopian Regiment. During Valley Forge, General Washington's troopstrength was dangerously low and he was forced to accept slaves. Hecontinued to accept them until the end of the war. During this sameperiod, half of the Colonial Army that drove the British from Louisianawas black.

At the end of the war, approximately five thousand black soldiersfought in major battles in the American Revolution, from BunkerHill to Yorktown. In 1792, Congress passed an act restricting blacksfrom serving in the army, and all blacks were quickly dismissed fromits ranks and returned to slavery. Some twenty thousand blacks thatserved with the British at the end of the war were transported to SierraLeone, Canada, and the Caribbean. One little known fact is the eighthundred or more blacks who served in the British Ethiopian Regimentwere comprised primarily of ex-slaves committed to serving the BritishCrown, and they fought gallantly in three major battles. Even thoughmany blacks fought heroically during this war, America quickly forgotand turned her back on them, forcing them back into slavery.

This would be the first of many times that this episode wouldoccur. In my opinion, America has a serious problem with selectiveamnesia when it comes to the rights and accomplishments of AfricanAmericans. Many of the more notable blacks who fought in this warwere Salem Poor, who was cited for bravery at Bunker Hill; Jack Sisson,who fought in the raid on General Prescott's headquarters; JamesArmistead, who served as a spy for General Lafayette; Prince Whippleand Oliver Cromwell, who accompanied George Washington when hecrossed the Delaware; Edward Hector, who fought bravely in the Battleof Brandywine in 1777; and James Robinson, a Maryland slave whofought at Yorktown. By 1778, each of General Washington's brigadeshad an average of forty-two black soldiers assigned.

War of 1812 (1812 – 1815)

In 1798, the secretary of war wrote to the commander of the MarineCorps that "no Negro, mulatto or Indian is to be enlisted." Louisianabecame a state in 1812, and its legislature authorized the governor toenroll free black landowners in the militia. In 1803, a group of freeblacks who called themselves Free Men of Color were denied voluntaryservice in the territorial militia but were allowed to enlist as a battalionin 1812. This unit's commanding officers were white, but they wereallowed three black lieutenants.

The War of 1812 was primarily a naval war, so in 1812 nothingprevented blacks from serving in the navy. Blacks were still barred fromserving in the army during this period. Blacks comprised approximately10 to 20 percent of sailors assigned to the Great Lakes region.Commodore Perry had hundreds of blacks serving with him duringhis victory on Lake Erie. Early during the war, the Navy petitionedCongress to recruit blacks within its ranks. Finally, in March 1813,Congress abolished this policy and allowed blacks into the armed forces.England and Spain refused to return slaves to their owners if they foughtagainst the Americans. Many blacks fled to Florida to live among theSeminole Indians. These slaves did not realize their value, because thefirst Seminole War was started to recapture runaway slaves. The secondSeminole War began because of white land encroachment.

White settlers wanted to move the Seminole Indians aside to makeroom for their expansion. The large number of blacks living amongthe Seminoles was one of the primary reasons Seminole extraction waspursued. Approximately, one-third of the Seminole Indians willing tofight were blacks living amongst the Seminole nation. Later, after thewar, the Seminoles were forced to live in Indian territories, but blackswere returned to their original plantations if records could confirm, orthey tried to escape to Mexico.

It is important to note that the largest number of black Americantroops was assembled for the defense of New Orleans in December1814 and January 1815. When Andrew Jackson was gathering his forcesfor the imminent British invasion, General William C. C. Claiborneadvised him that he could gather four hundred Free Men of Color. Morethan six hundred were recruited. Two battalions were formed under thecommand of Colonel Michael Fortier. The ranking black officer and thefirst commissioned African American in the US Armed Forces to reachfield-grade status was Second Major Vincent Populas.

Civil War 1861 – 1865

Many would agree that the Civil War was the most divisive war inAmerican history for several reasons. The war was fought on Americansoil, pitted brother against brother, separated the Union, and put themorality of slavery on center stage of national politics. History givescredit to President Abraham Lincoln for abolishing slavery, but thelittle known fact is that President Lincoln originally had no intentionof eliminating slavery. His primary focus was on preserving the Unionat all costs. He knew that slavery was the most divisive issue facing thenation, and his emphasis was not making this an issue but keeping statesfrom seceding from the Union.

On April 12, 1861, the Confederacy attacked Fort Sumter inCharleston, South Carolina, and the war was on. Soon after this attack,North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Virginia cut their ties withthe Union and joined the Confederacy. The Union wrestled with howto handle runaway slaves. As slave masters headed to war, thousands ofslaves immediately ran away. During this period the Union had no policyon fugitive slaves. Consequently, unit commanders made their owndecisions concerning fugitive slaves. Many decided to return the slavesto their owners, while some decided to use them for cooking, diggingditches, doing laundry, and doing other meager tasks. On August 6,1861, the Fugitive Slave Law was passed and slaves were considered as"contraband of war." If the slaves were considered contraband, then theywould be characterized as being legally free.

By 1862, President Lincoln realized that as long as blacks remainedenslaved, the Confederacy would use them as free labor in support ofthe war effort. Blacks were not allowed to serve in the army, fighting forthe Union. In an effort to level the playing field, the president startedconsidering setting the slaves free via emancipation. At this point blackswere tasked to build fortifications, serve as nurses and blacksmiths, andwork in hospitals, factories, and armories. Black free labor leveragedsupport in favor of the Confederacy.

Many European countries were prepared to enter the war in supportof the Confederacy because President Lincoln still did not want to makethe war about abolishing slavery. He also would not allow free blacksto fight in the war in support of the Union. According to Europeanpublic opinion, if the president decided to free the slaves they wouldoverwhelmingly side with the North.

On January 1, 1863, President Lincoln issued the EmancipationProclamation that freed the slaves that lived within the states thatrebelled, leaving approximately one million blacks still enslaved thatresided in the North. Blacks, now free, ran immediately to join theUnion forces and serve in its Army. For years blacks had worked in theNavy aboard ships, but now they had the option of serving in either theArmy or the Navy. President Lincoln's war department did not expectthe overwhelming numbers of blacks, both free and former slaves, toenlist in the army. In some places these numbers were so amazing thata separate colored unit had to be created.

The first colored unit to form was the 54th Massachusetts ColoredRegiment commanded by a white officer, Colonel Robert Gould Shaw.By 1863, the war department created the Bureau of Colored Troops.Blacks endured not only segregation but discrimination, as well. Blacksoldiers were paid meager wages compared to their white militarybrethren. Blacks received $7 per month and a $3 clothing allowance,while whites received $13 per month and $3.50 for clothes. Finally, in1864, the War Department gave equal wages for black soldiers. Thearmy did not have a policy yet to commission black officers. Only amere one hundred black officers served during the Civil War. By thewar's end, more than 186,000 blacks served in the Union Army, 40,000came from border slave states, 53,000 from free states, and an amazing93,000 from Confederate states in the South, fleeing slavery. Twenty-fourblack soldiers were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor,and a whopping 200,000 blacks served collectively in the US ArmedForces during this war. Over 38,000 blacks gave the ultimate sacrifice,fighting first for respect and then freedom.

On April 18, 1865, the Civil War ended, with over 620,000Americans dying, and setting over four million blacks free. Many blacksremained in the South, yet millions migrated to the industrial North,attempting to create a better life than they had in the South. Someblacks traveled back to their plantations in an attempt to find relativesand loved ones. Some Southern whites resisted the change with alltheir might and continued to prey upon blacks with little interruptionsor interference from anyone. The period for the next ten years wouldbe termed "Reconstruction," because the country was in dire need ofhealing and rebuilding.