Judaism and Christianity have to explain why humans, created by a good and merciful God, sin and commit evil. Rabbi Michael Mayersohn introduces the readers to the conclusions of the Hebrew Bible, the rabbinic literature of Talmud and Midrash, the writings of Paul, Augustine, Aquinas and Martin Luther. Nowhere else can a reader find the rabbis of Talmud and Christian saints Paul and Augustine all in one place talking about an issue as important as sin and evil. The Bible introduces us to the topic of sin with the story of Cain and Abel and Christianity takes us back to the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. In its own distinctive way each tradition tries to explain why humans created by God sin. In this fascinating exploration Rabbi Mayersohn will take us to these sacred texts and explain how Judaism and Christianity reach the conclusions they do about human sinfulness. Is sin inherent in the human condition or the result of some external influence? What is God's role in the story of humans and evil? Is Original Sin the only answer to how sin appeared in the human story? What do these two great faith traditions have to say about these and other important questions?
ARE WE SINNERS?
CHRISTIAN AND JEWISH BELIEFS ON SIN AND EVILBy MICHAEL MAYERSOHNiUniverse, Inc.
Copyright © 2009 Rabbi Michael Mayersohn
All right reserved.ISBN: 978-1-4401-6911-3Contents
Chapter 1 Sin in the Hebrew Bible................................................................................1Chapter 2 The Origin and Ultimate Disposition of the Evil Inclination in Rabbinic Literature.....................19Chapter 3 The Manifestation of the Evil Inclination in Rabbinic Literature.......................................29Chapter 4 The Struggle with the Evil Inclination in Rabbinic Literature..........................................41Chapter 5 Strategies for Combating the Evil Inclination in Rabbinic Literature...................................57Chapter 6 Paul and Augustine on the Origin and Nature of Sin.....................................................71Chapter 7 Thomas Aquinas and Martin Luther on Sin................................................................89Chapter 8 Where We Differ, What We Share Regarding Sin and Evil..................................................95Appendix Mortal, Venial, Serious Sin and the Sacrament of Penance................................................105
Chapter One
SIN IN THE HEBREW BIBLE
We find numerous references to sin in the Bible and a few in-depth discourses on the nature of sin, what constitutes sin, how one repents and whether God forgives our sins. Sin and God's response to it are prevailing themes of the sacred text as we return to the ideas again and again. Sin is the primary source of human and divine conflict and drama. Sin creates conflict in human interaction and in our relationship with God. The interplay of sin and repentance provides the push and pull of the human connection with God. Sin drives us away when we transgress and repentance draws us close to God when we turn away and return to God's ways.
In this chapter we will examine the Bible's references to and discussions of sin in an attempt to understand what the Biblical text sees as specific sins, the process of atonement and forgiveness and the large category of sacrificial sin offerings. We will also examine the most extensive Biblical discourse on sin, Solomon's prayer as recorded in I Kings 8. The goal will be to understand how the Biblical writer understood and conceived of human and specifically Israelite sinfulness and how it affects our relationship to God.
Very near the beginning of the Bible we read a declarative statement about sin that lays the groundwork for much of the later Jewish traditional understanding of human sin and the ability of people to control and manage sinful impulses. God is speaking to Adam and Eve's oldest son, Cain, in the wake of his distress at realizing that God was paying heed to his brother Abel's sacrifices and not to Cain's. Responding to Cain's distress, God says to him, "Surely if you do right there is uplift. But if you do not do right sin couches at the door; its urge is toward you, yet you can be its master." (Genesis 4:7) This is the first place in the Hebrew Bible where we see the word sin and it is worth noting that it is in the context of contentious feelings that lead to an act of violence. The expression, "sin couches at the door," suggests that sin is ever present, waiting to take advantage of a person's inclination to let it in. The close and looming presence of sin tells us that we are likely to succumb in any moment and that it is seductive and enticing. Sin is right there, "at the door," through which one has to pass to be part of the world. But while "its urge is toward you," each person has the power to rule over sin and master it. Sin is personified as having an urge and that urge is toward the person with feelings of exclusion, rejection and anger. From this first explicit reference to sin in the Hebrew Bible the sacred text is teaching that sin lurks nearby, that it is not passive but active, and that it cannot be defeated or vanquished, and can only be managed and controlled.
These themes, that sin is always near and present, that it possesses a desire toward humans and that people can control and manage it, are stressed repeatedly in the later rabbinic tradition, as we will see in subsequent chapters. God's statement to Cain is quoted frequently in the rabbinic literature to support the idea that sin is not something that is alien to people or of passing interest, but that it is close, seductive and persistent.
The Christian reader may perceive something missing from this initial discussion of sin in the Bible. We jumped right to the story of Cain and Abel, ignoring the story of Adam and Eve and the violation of God's commandment not to eat the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. As we will see in the later discussion of the Christian tradition and the idea of Original Sin, this story is the very foundation of Christian teaching on the subject. Jewish tradition never focuses on the Adam and Eve story in the context of sin and the word sin is not used in the telling of the story. This is the beginning of the differences between Judaism and Christianity on the question of sin and its place in human behavior.
At the end of the Noah Flood story in Genesis, after the waters have receded and everyone has exited the ark, Noah builds an altar and makes sacrificial offerings to God. God is depicted as being pleased by the sacrifice and "said to Himself, 'Never again will I doom the earth because of man, since the devisings of man's mind are evil from his youth; nor will I ever again destroy every living being as I have done.'" (Genesis 8:20f) After destroying all of the living beings on earth because of their wickedness, God resolves never to do that again while acknowledging that man has the capacity for evil "from his youth." This suggests, as later rabbinic texts that we will examine in subsequent chapters will describe, that the evil inclination of humans is there from the beginning. Humans have this capacity not because of something they learn along the way or because of life experiences, but because that is how they were designed. This will have immense importance both for the rabbinic tradition in their discussion of the good and evil inclination and certainly for Christianity and its consideration of the idea of Original Sin.
In numerous instances in the Bible the references to sin are unspecific and undefined. The listener and reader are left to guess or deduce what constitutes sin, or it is assumed that they will understand what the sin is. Before we read about the outrageous acts of the men of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19), God is depicted as speculating on whether to talk to Abraham about the plan to destroy the cities. God is quoted as thinking, "The outrage of Sodom and Gomorrah is so great, and their sin so grave!" (Genesis 18:20) The reader is left to wonder what their sin is, and after reading Genesis 19 and the story of the crude people of Sodom one is still left guessing whether the sin is the homosexual brutality of the men or their inhospitable treatment of the visitors. God identifies their sin as grave, but the reader is not explicitly told what the sin is. Jewish tradition holds that the sin of the people is their threatened violence against the guests as suggested by Lot's offer of his daughters in their stead. Lot's plea on their behalf is based on his responsibility to take care of them when he says, "do not do anything to these men, since they have come under the shelter of my roof." (Genesis 19:8) In Ezekiel (16:49-50) we read of Sodom, "pride, fulness of bread, and careless ease was in her and in her daughters; neither did she strengthen the hand of the poor and needy. And they were haughty." It was their arrogance and insensitivity, especially in the face of their own material comfort, that constituted their sin.
Several key figures in the Torah ask a question, apparently rhetorically, regarding a sin they might have committed. When Laban, Jacob's father-in-law, is pursuing him after Jacob had fled his household, Jacob asks, "What is my transgression, how have I sinned that you should pursue me?" (Genesis 31:36) Similarly, Joseph, in the wake of the alleged seduction of Potiphar's wife, asks, "How could I do this most wicked thing, and sin before God?" (Genesis 39:9) Reuben, one of Jacob's twelve sons, rebukes his brothers for their abduction and sale of Joseph, asking, "Did I not tell you, 'Do not sin against the boy?'" (Genesis 42:22) The speaker always knows the answer to his question. There was a shared understanding of what constituted sin and the presumption that sin could have been avoided and that the person who chooses to sin is held accountable for his transgression.
We frequently read of people sinning in the Biblical text, especially in the narratives of Genesis and Exodus, with warnings against sinning and without any clear or obvious definition of what the sin is. The reader is left to assume or understand what the sin under question is, what the speaker has in mind. In the concluding passages of the Joseph epic in Genesis, the brothers claim to quote their father Jacob in urging Joseph not to seek retribution: "Forgive the sin of your brothers who treated you so harshly." (Genesis 50:17) The listener/reader wonders whether the harsh treatment of Joseph by the brothers was the sin or whether something more specific, like their lying about his fate or selling him into slavery constituted the sin.
After the seventh plague inflicted on Pharoah and the Egyptians, after Pharoah repeatedly recanted his permission to the Israelites to go into the wilderness to serve God, we read that Pharoah "became stubborn and continued to sin." (Exodus 9:34) We are left to assume that it was his defiance of God, his refusal to let the Israelites go that was his sin, but it is possible that the reference to his continuing to sin is a more general message about his lifestyle and leadership. Pharoah himself pleads to be forgiven of his sins, using the same simple phrase that King David will use when confronted by Nathan after his sexual violation of Bat Sheva: "Chatati l'Adonai," "I have sinned before Adonai." (Exodus 10:16; David in II Samuel 12:13) It is a simple and profound acknowledgment of sinful behavior without explanation or justification.
The prophets offer broad condemnations of the people for their sinful behavior and at times we have to deduce from the context what sin they are talking about. Isaiah forcefully declares, "Be your sins like crimson, they can turn snow-white; be they red as dyed wool, they can become like fleece." (Isaiah 1:18) This speaks to the possibility of forgiveness for the sin and only from the context of the preceding verses can we conclude that the sin of which Isaiah is speaking is social injustice. Again in a very generalized way, referring to a broad understanding of sinful behavior Isaiah declares, "Ah, those who haul sin with cords of falsehood and iniquity as with cart ropes." (Isaiah 5:18) Without cataloging the particulars the prophet establishes that mere defiance of God constitutes sin, "Oh, disloyal sons declares the Lord. Making plans against my wishes, weaving schemes against My will, thereby piling sin upon sin." (Isaiah 30:1) While there is great debate between Christian and Jewish tradition regarding the identity of the servant in Isaiah 53, he seems to bear the sins of others, "My righteous servant makes the many righteous, it is their punishment that he bears ... he was numbered among the sinners, whereas he bore the sin of many and made intercession for sinners." (Isaiah 53:11f)
Unspecified sin can trap a person and bring reproach to a people (Proverbs 5:22, 14:34) and we read that Job did not sin against God even after experiencing unspeakable suffering at God's hand (Job 1:22). In the many instances where the Bible does not specify the sin under consideration the presumption appears to be that the reader knows what sin is.
The text does exhaustively and comprehensively recount the sins of the Israelites, the sins God condemns. Numerous specific acts and categories of behavior are identified in the Bible as sins and the people are warned about them, cautioned to avoid them. There is an understanding that other nations will lead the Israelites to sin and that the sinful behavior of other nations has to be avoided. God tells the people that the inhabitants of the Land of Israel will not remain in the land so that they cannot lead the Israelites to sin (Exodus 20:17). The land becomes corrupted as a result of the sinful behavior of the inhabitants:
Thus the land itself became defiled; and I (God) called it to account for its iniquity, and the land spewed out its inhabitants. But you must keep My laws and My rules, and you must not do any of those abhorrent things, neither the citizen nor the stranger who resides among you. For all those abhorrent things were done by the people who were in the land before you, and the land became defiled. So let not the land spew you out for defiling it, as it spewed out the nation that came before you.
The Israelites are cautioned against many specific acts that are identified as sins. Blaspheming God (Leviticus 24:15), violation of a vow (Deuteronomy 23:23), abusing a needy laborer and withholding his pay (Deuteronomy 24:15) are all defined as sinful behavior. As we saw in Isaiah (1:17f) and elsewhere (Deuteronomy 15:9), acts of social injustice are sins. The tribes of Gad and Reuben are told that their reluctance to enter the Land of Israel with the other tribes, their interest in staying on the east bank of the Jordan River is sinful. Cheating in business practices is identified as a sin (Proverbs 20:9f) and robbing one's parents is a sin (Proverbs 28:24). In one instance the sin of the Israelites in the wilderness was not the Golden Calf (see below) but the defiance of the Israelites when they demanded better food, rejecting God's nurturance and providence (Psalms 78:17f). Making vows one will not or cannot keep is a case of the mouth leading a person to sin (Ecclesiastes 5:5). In general, any time a person acts contrary to the commands, expectations and desires of God, rebelling against God's word, the Bible identifies the behavior as sinful. We are in relationship with God and with each other and whenever we violate either relationship, either with acts that defy God or acts that wrong another person, we have sinned.
In several instances Biblical figures identify their own sins or they are identified for them. Aaron acknowledges that the criticism that he and Miriam launched against Moses, challenging his position of leadership, was a sin (Numbers 12:11). The sons of the priest Eli are described as scoundrels (I Samuel 2:12) and their sin is defined rather broadly as having "treated the Lord's offerings impiously." (I Samuel 2:17) Samuel lets Saul know that his sins are numerous, "For rebellion is like the sin of divination, defiance like the iniquity of teraphim (idols); because you rejected the Lord's command, He has rejected you as king." (I Samuel 15:23) In the Psalms, we read that the Israelites' sin against God in the wilderness was not restricted to the creation and worship of the golden calf. Their lack of faith in God as demonstrated in their whining about the food was also a sin: "They went on sinning against Him, defying the Most High in the parched land. To test God was in their mind when they demanded food for themselves. They spoke against God, saying, 'Can God spread a feast in the wilderness?'" (Psalms 78:17)
The greatest single instance of Israelite sin, the event that is referred to several times throughout the Bible and the rabbinic literature as the greatest example of sin, is the incident of the Israelites' creation and worship of the Golden Calf in the wilderness. When Moses learns about the act of idolatry he turns to Aaron and asks, "What did this people do to you that you have brought such great sin upon them?" (Exodus 32:21) Moses reminds the people of the Golden Calf sin, recounting the event, "I saw how you had sinned against the Lord your God: you had made yourselves a molten calf; you had been quick to stray from the path that the Lord had enjoined upon you." (Deuteronomy 9:16) Moses recalls his own response to the terrible sin, "As for that sinful thing you had made, the calf, I took it and put it to the fire; I broke it to bits and ground it thoroughly until it was fine as dust, and I threw its dust into the brook that comes down the mountain." (Deuteronomy 9:21) Moses recounts his prayer to God, interceding once again on the people's behalf, this time because of their sin of the Golden Calf, "Give thought to Your servants, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, and pay no heed to the stubbornness of this people, its wickedness, its sinfulness." (Deuteronomy 9:27)
This incident of ultimate sinful rebellion against God, a rejection of God, becomes the reference point for any leader or prophet who seeks to remind the people of their inclination to sin. The prophet Hosea refers to Israel sinning by making molten images and idols, "They are wont to kiss calves." (Hosea 13:2) There is a veiled reference to the incident in Jeremiah, when the people ask God what their sin is and God responds, "Because your fathers deserted me ... and followed other gods and served them and worshiped them; they deserted Me and did not keep my Torah." (Jeremiah 16:10, 18) Idolatry generally and the incident of the Golden Calf specifically, is the greatest example of sin that an Israelite can commit.
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Excerpted from ARE WE SINNERS?by MICHAEL MAYERSOHN Copyright © 2009 by Rabbi Michael Mayersohn. Excerpted by permission.
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