A typical human anatomy and physiology textbook contains over one thousand pages and weighs over six pounds. It is not conducive to quick study or a last-minute review when a student is trying to prepare for exams or class lectures. The author has carefully reviewed the major human anatomy and physiology textbooks and incorporated into this guide the main concepts needed by students to meet the challenges of the course and make the grades they need. These points are provided in bulleted lists for quick mastery of the subject matter. The information is provided on each of the following topics and many more: • Anatomy terms and physiology concepts • Chemistry, including organic and inorganic • Cellular level of organization • Cardiovascular system • Circulatory system • Digestive system • Immune system • Nervous system • Nutrition, metabolism, and body temperature regulation • Fluid, Electrolytes, and Acid-base balance Human Anatomy and Physiology will help medical, nursing, and students of other health-related disciplines prepare for their classes and exams by providing review questions at the end of every chapter, along with the answers that will enable them to test their knowledge and skill level.

Human Anatomy & Physiology

Study NotesBy Adeyemi Olubummo

iUniverse, Inc.

Copyright © 2010 Adeyemi Olubummo
All right reserved.
ISBN: 978-1-4502-3552-5

Contents

Answers to Chapter Review Questions....................................................205-224

Chapter One

Introduction to the Human Body

Anatomy: Anatomy can be divided into gross (macroscopic) anatomy and microscopic anatomy

1.1 Branches of Anatomy and Physiology

1.1.1 Gross Anatomy

In gross anatomy we study relatively large structures, such as the heart, kidney, and lungs, without the aid of a microscope. There are many different branches of gross anatomy:

1. Surface anatomy is the study of general form and superficial markings. 2. Regional anatomy focuses on anatomical organization of specific areas of the body. 3. Systemic anatomy is the study of the structure of organ systems, such as the digestive system. 4. Developmental anatomy deals with the study of the changes in forms that occur between conception and physical maturity. 5. Clinical anatomy focuses on different areas of specialties in clinical practice-e.g., medical anatomy, radiographic anatomy, and surgical anatomy.

1.1.2 Microscopic Anatomy

1. Cytology is the study of the internal structure of individual cells with the aid of microscopes. 2. Histology is the branch of anatomy that deals with the study of tissues.

1.1.3 Physiology

The study of the functions of the human body

1. Cell physiology is the study of the functions of cells. 2. Special physiology is the study of the physiology of special organs. 3. Systemic physiology is the study of the functioning of specific organ systems. 4. Pathological physiology is the study of the effects of diseases on organs or organ systems' functions.

1.1.4 Levels of Organization

1. The chemical (or molecular) level: atoms and molecules 2. The cellular level: molecules interacting to form organelles 3. The tissue level: groups of cells working together to perform one or more specific functions 4. The organ level: two or more tissues working in combination to perform several functions 5. The organ system level: organs interacting in organ systems 6. The organism level: an organism, such as a human

1.1.5 Necessary Life Functions

1. Maintaining Boundaries: All the cells in the body are surrounded by selectively permeable membranes keeping unwanted materials out.

2. Movement: All activities in the body facilitated by the muscular system, such as blood circulation or propelling food through the digestive system. Movement is carried out by entire organisms, organs, tissues, cells, or organelles.

3. Responsiveness: Ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them accordingly. The organism detects stimulus, and the effectors respond to the stimulus.

4. Metabolism: It involves all the chemical reactions occurring in the body cells. It includes breaking down substances (catabolism) and synthesizing complex substances from simpler ones (anabolism). Metabolism depends on the digestive and respiratory systems to make oxygen and nutrients available and on the cardiovascular system, which transports them throughout the body.

5. Growth: Increase in the size of a body part or an organism. For true growth to occur in cells, constructive activities in the cells must supersede the destructive activities.

6. Reproduction: In cellular reproduction, the parent cell divides to form identical two daughter cells that may be used for growth in multicellular organisms.

7. Excretion: The process of removing wastes, which may be carried out by the lungs, the digestive system, the urinary system, or the integumentary system.

8. Differentiation: Specialization of embryonic tissues into different body tissues with limited capabilities. This occurs as different set of genes are switched off in the chromosomes of different cells.

1.1.6 Homeostasis

Homeostasis is very important to an organism. When homeostasis fails, it leads to illness or even death. Two general mechanisms are involved in homeostatic regulation: autoregulation and extrinsic regulation.

1. Autoregulation (intrinsic regulation): Cells, tissues, and organ system have the ability to regulate their functions automatically in response to changes in the environment; e.g., when the [O.sub.2] level declines in a tissue, the cells release chemicals to dilate local blood vessels. 2. Extrinsic regulation results from the activities of the nervous system or endocrine system; for instance, after exercise, the nervous system increases your heart rate in order for blood to circulate faster.

A homeostatic regulatory mechanism consists of three parts:

1. Receptor is a sensor that is sensitive to a particular environmental change or stimulus. 2. Control center receives and processes the information supplied by the receptor. 3. Effector is a cell or organ that responds to the commands of the control center. Its activity either opposes or enhances the stimulus.

1.1.7 The Role of Negative Feedback

Most activities in our body are regulated by negative feedback mechanisms. An important example is the control of body temperature, a process called thermoregulation. The following steps are involved:

A stimulus produces a response that opposes or negates the original stimulus-e.g., the temperature changes. A Receptor senses the stimulus (temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus). Control center (in this case the thermoregulatory center in the brain) is affected, then sends commands to

Effectors: Sweat glands in the skin increase secretions, and blood vessels in the skin dilate.

Response: With increased heat loss, body temperature drops and normal temperature is restored.

1.1.8 The Role of Positive Feedback

A positive feedback mechanism occurs when the stimulus produces a reaction that exaggerates or enhances the effect of the stimulus rather than reverses it. Steps involved in the positive feedback in blood clotting are as follows:

1. A break in a blood vessel wall causes bleeding. 2. Damaged cells release chemicals. 3. Clotting begins. 4. Additional chemicals are released (causing clotting to accelerate). 5. A blood clot plugs the break in the vessel wall, and bleeding stops.

"Positive feedback is important in accelerating processes that must proceed to completion rapidly. Think of a positive feedback as a domino effect-once the domino begins to fall, the chain reaction causes each successive domino to fall until completion." (Instructor's Guide Resource Guide by Lucia Tranel and Alice Mills-Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology by Frederic H Martini, Third Edition)

1.1.9 Anatomical Position

A person is in an anatomical position when the following conditions are fulfilled:

1. Erect 2. Facing observer 3. Eyes forward 4. Arms at sides 5. Palms forward 6. Feet flat on the floor 7. Big toes together 8. Thumbs point away from the body 9. "Right" and "left" refer to the sides of the person being viewed

A person lying down in the anatomical position is said to be supine when face up, and prone when face down.

1.1.10 Common Anatomical Terms for Body Regions

Head (cephalic), consists of two regions:

1. Skull (cranial)

Common Term Anatomical Term

Top of head Parietal Side Temporal Back Occipital Forehead Frontal

2. Face (facial)

Common Term Anatomical Term

Eye Ocular Nose Nasal Ear Otic Cheek Buccal Chin Mental Neck Cervical

Trunk: 1. Front (ventral or anterior):

Common Term Anatomical Term

Chest Thoracic Collar bone Clavicular Shoulder Acromial Breast bone Sternal Belly Abdominal Navel Umbilical Pelvis Pelvic Pubis Pubic

2. Back (dorsal or posterior):

Common Term Anatomical Term

Backbone Vertebral Loin Lumbar Tailbone Sacral, Coccygeal

1.1.11 Planes

The principal planes include: midsagittal (median), Parasagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse (crosssectional or horizontal), and oblique.

Sections are the surfaces resulting from cuts through body structures. They are named according to the plane on which the cut is made and include transverse, frontal, and midsagittal sections.

1.1.12 Directional Terms

Common Terms Anatomical Terms

Toward the upper part Superior Toward the lower part Inferior, caudal Front Ventral or anterior Back Posterior or dorsal Face up Supine Face down Prone Toward midline Medial Away from midline Lateral Near point of attachment Proximal Far from point of attachment Distal On the surface Superficial Away from body surface; more internal Deep On the wall of body cavity Parietal Directly on the organ Visceral Between Intermediate

1.1.13 Body Cavities

The two principal body cavities are the dorsal and ventral cavities.

1. The dorsal cavity is subdivided into the cranial cavity, which contains the brain, and the vertebral (spinal) cavity, which contains the spinal cord. 2. The ventral cavity is subdivided by the diaphragm into an upper thoracic cavity and a lower abdominopelvic cavity

The thoracic cavity contains the pleural cavities and the mediastinum, which includes the pericardial cavity.

The pleural cavities enclose the lungs, while the pericardial cavity surrounds the heart; these cavities are lined by serous membranes. The mediastinum is a mass of tissues between the lungs and contains the contents of the thoracic cavity except the lungs.

1.1.14 Abdominopelvic cavity

Contains the peritoneal cavity, which is lined by the peritoneum The parietal peritoneum lines the inner surface of the body wall. The visceral peritoneum covers the enclosed organ. The narrow space between them contains small amounts of fluid.

Note: A few organs are not enclosed by the peritoneum. Such organs are referred to as retroperitoneal organs. Examples of such organs are the kidneys, the urinary bladder, and the pancreas. (These organs are "behind" the peritoneum.)

Note: The mediastinum is not a cavity, but rather a region within the thoracic cavity. The mediastinum contains the pericardial cavity.

1.1.15 The Nine Abdominopelvic Regions

Anatomists use two transverse and two parasagittal planes to divide the abdominopelvic cavity into nine regions.

1. The umbilical region is the centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus.

2. The epigastric region is the region located superior to the umbilical region (above the belly).

3. The hypogastric (pubic) region is the region located inferior to the umbilical region (below the belly).

4. The right and left iliac, or inguinal, regions are the regions located lateral to the hypogastric region.

5. The right and left lumbar regions are the regions that lie lateral to the umbilical regions.

6. The right and left hypochondriac regions are the regions that flank the epigastric region laterally.

Right hypochondriac region Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region Right lumbar region Umbilical region Left lumbar region Right iliac (inguinal region) Hypogastric (pubic) region Left iliac (inguinal) region

1.2 Summary of the Body's Organ Systems

1.2.1 Integumentary

Component: Hair, nails, and skin Functions: Perception, protection, and vitamin D production

1.2.2 Skeletal System

Components: Bones, joints, and cartilages Functions: Protects and supports body organs Provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement Stores minerals Houses hemopoiesis

1.2.3 Muscular System

Components: Skeletal system. Consists of muscles attached to skeleton by tendons Functions: Allows manipulation of the environment Locomotion Posture maintenance Production of heat

1.2.4 Lymphatic System

Components: Spleen, thymus, lymphatic vessels, tonsils, and lymph nodes Functions: Defends against infection and disease (immunity) Returns tissue fluids to the blood Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity

1.2.5 Respiratory System

Components: Sinuses, nasal conchae, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and alveoli Functions: Delivers oxygen and carbon dioxide to alveoli for exchange Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide Produces sounds for communication

1.2.6 Digestive System

Components: Alimentary canal, mouth, oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus Accessory organs: Tongue, teeth, liver, salivary gland, pancreas, and gall bladder Functions: Break food down into absorbable units that enters the blood for distribution to cells

1.2.7 Nervous System

Components: Spinal cord, brain, special sense organs, and nerves Functions: Fast-acting control system of the body Regulates activities of the body by detecting and responding to changes and activating appropriate muscles and glands

1.2.8 Urinary System

Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra Functions: Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood

1.2.9 Endocrine System

Components: Pituitary gland, thymus gland, pancreas, adrenals, gonads, and other endocrine tissues in other systems Functions: Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body Controls many structural and functional changes during development

1.2.10 Cardiovascular System

Components: Heart, blood, and blood vessels Functions: Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and wastes Heat distribution and temperature regulation The heart pumps blood

1.2.11 Male Reproductive System

Components: Testes, epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra, penis, and glands Functions: Sperm and male sex hormone production Delivery of sperm to the female

1.2.12 Female Reproductive System

Components: Ovaries, uterus, fallopian tube, vagina, and accessory glands Functions: Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. Site of fertilization and development of the fetus Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn.

(Continues...)

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