Distance Education and Languages: Evolution and Change (New Perspectives on Language and Education) - Softcover

Softcover

ISBN 10: 1853597759 ISBN 13: 9781853597756

Publisher: Multilingual Matters, 2005

Synopsis

This edited book is the first collection of studies dealing specifically with the teaching of languages at a distance. It contains contributions from language teaching professionals working all over the world in different contexts and at different stages of development, and covers a variety of languages. Based on practical experience and research, it includes work on learner autonomy and support; theories of distance language learning; the development of intercultural competence; methodology and course design; different learning environments and how to make best use of them, and language teacher education. These contributions have been collected together in one volume to encourage the establishment of collaborative links between practitioners in different institutions and around the world and inspire more related research in the future to guide our understanding and reflection on evolution and change within the field.

About this title

About the Author

Börje Holmberg is a linguist by training who leads the field in the development of theories relating to distance learning and teaching. He has held senior posts at Hermods in Sweden, the FernUniversität and the Private Distance-Teaching University of Applied Sciences in Germany. He holds honorary doctorates from universities in Australia and the UK. His many publications include Growth and Structure of Distance Education (1986) and Theory and Practice of Distance Education (1995). 

Monica Shelley is a linguist who has worked at the Open University in the UK in Community Education, Modern Languages and Knowledge Resources Management. She has edited and published work in the field of foreign languages and distance education and her research interests focus on the language learning needs of distance learners, on the design and structure of language courses taught at a distance and the development of intercultural competence. 

Cynthia White is Associate Professor in the School of Language Studies at Massey University in New Zealand, where she has worked in the field of distance education at the tertiary level for nearly 20 years. Her primary research areas are language learning in self-instruction contexts, learner autonomy and distance education. Her most recent publication is Language Learning in Distance Education (2003).

 

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.

Distance Education and Languages

Evolution and Change

By Börje Holmberg, Monica Shelley, Cynthia White

Multilingual Matters

Copyright © 2005 B. Holmberg, M. Shelley, C. White and the authors of individual chapters
All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-1-85359-775-6

Contents

Preface Börje Holmberg, vii, 
Introduction Monica Shelley and Cynthia White, ix, 
Part 1: Learner Autonomy, 
1 Autonomy and the Distance Language Learner Stella Hurd, 1, 
2 Critical Reflection and Autonomy: A Study of Distance Learners of French, German and Spanish Linda Murphy, 20, 
3 Theoretical and Practical Issues in the Promotion of Collaborative Learner Autonomy in a Virtual Self-access Centre Alex Ding, 40, 
Part 2: Learner Perspectives and Support, 
4 Towards a Learner-based Theory of Distance Language Learning: The Concept of the Learner–Context Interface Cynthia White, 55, 
5 Feedback in Distance Language Learning: Current Practices and New Directions Cristina Ros i Solé and Mike Truman, 72, 
6 A Framework for Supporting Students Studying English via a Mixed-mode Delivery System Carisma Dreyer, Nwabisa Bangeni and Charl Nel, 92, 
Part 3: Development of Intercultural Competence, 
7 Assessing Intercultural Competence Gain in a German Distance Learning Course for Adults Monica Shelley and Uwe Baumann, 119, 
8 Developing Professional Intercultural Communicative Competence: Reflections on Distance Learning Programmes for Language Educators and Translators/Interpreters in Bulgaria Richard Fay and Leah Davcheva, 140, 
Part 4: Methodology and Course Design, 
9 Teaching Foreign Language Skills by Distance Education Methods: Some Basic Considerations Börje Holmberg, 166, 
10 Course Design for the Distance Learner of Spanish: More Challenges than Meet the Eye Cecilia Garrido, 178, 
Part 5: Learning Environments, 
11 Learner Autonomy and Course Management Software Donald Weasenforth, Christine F. Meloni and Sigrun Biesenbach-Lucas, 195, 
12 Chatlines for Beginners: Negotiating Conversation at a Distance Vincenza Tudini, 212, 
13 Making Online Students Connect: Ethnographic Strategies for Developing Online Learning Experiences Andreas Schramm, 230, 
14 From Parrots to Puppet Masters: Fostering Creative and Authentic Language Use with Online Tools John Milton, 242, 
15 The Challenges of Implementing Online Tuition in Distance Language Courses: Task Design and Tutor Role Mirjam Hauck and Regine Hampel, 258, 
Part 6: Language Teacher Development, 
16 Closing the Distance: Compensatory Strategies in Distance Language Education Heidi Hansson and Elisabeth Wennö, 278, 
17 PLEASE (Primary Language Teacher Education: Autonomy and Self-Evaluation) Franca Poppi, Lesley Low and Marina Bondi, 295, 
18 Exploring Zones of Interactivity in Foreign Language and Bilingual Teacher Education Do Coyle, 309, 
Notes on Contributors, 327, 
Author Index, 333, 
Subject Index, 339, 

CHAPTER 1

Autonomy and the Distance Language Learner

STELLA HURD

Introduction

Autonomy is a multidimensional concept now firmly rooted in mainstream literature and practice relating to language learning and teaching. However, while there are a number of theoretical descriptions of autonomous language learning, a single, universal theory has yet to emerge. The implications for a theory of autonomy are arguably even more complex in the case of distance language learning, where highly structured course materials and fixed assessment points would appear to run counter to notions of choice and responsibility. Taking as its point of reference the experience of distance language learning at the Open University (UK), this chapter examines the various dimensions of autonomy, in particular its relationship with affective aspects of learner differences and with metacognition. In conclusion, the chapter looks ahead to the potential of new technologies to create learning communities in which autonomy is promoted through social interaction, learner empowerment and reflection.

Interpretations of Autonomy

Despite the proliferation of research and publications over the last two decades, autonomy is a concept that remains elusive, particularly in relation to language learning and teaching. First, there are questions to do with definition, degree and application. Is it the 'ability to have and to hold the responsibility for all the decisions concerning all aspects of this learning' (Holec, 1981: 3) or is it a 'capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4)? Is it an attribute that signifies 'organic independence' (OED online) or does it also imply interdependence? Does it entail complete freedom and responsibility on the part of learners, or does it come with constraints? Is it something that can be taught, or even imposed on learners, or is this a 'contradiction in educational terms' (Holec, 1985: 169)? There are also important issues to do with the role and timing of autonomy in learning. Is it a precondition for successful learning or an outcome of certain modes of learning, for example self-instruction?

Definitions

While there are no easy answers to any of these questions, there does appear to be almost universal acceptance of the development of autonomy as an 'important, general educational goal' (Sinclair, 2000: 5), and that autonomy can take a variety of different forms depending on learning context and learner characteristics. Where there are differences, it is not always a question of favouring one definition or interpretation over another. For example, the 'capacity' of Little and the 'ability' or 'skill' of Holec are not opposing constructs. Benson (2001: 49) argues that 'Little's definition is complementary to Holec's', in that it makes explicit the cognitive processes underlying effective self-management of learning, and thus adds 'a vital psychological dimension that is often absent in definitions of autonomy'. Benson (2001: 47) prefers to use the term 'control' over learning, because such a construct allows for easier examination than 'charge' or 'responsibility'. Others define autonomy in terms of what it entails or implies, hence, 'self-regulation' (Schunk & Zimmerman, 1998; Wenden, 2001) or 'self-direction' (Candy, 1991; White, 1999). Another approach is to describe what autonomy is not (Little, 1991). The main priority, according to Benson (2001: 48) is 'that we are able to identify the form in which we choose to recognize it in the contexts of our own research and practice'.

Social interaction, interdependence and reflection

The psychological dimension of autonomy has attracted a great deal of attention over the last decade, largely as a result of renewed interest in the work of the Soviet psychologist Vygotsky and his emphasis on interdependence in learning. According to Vygotsky (1978), we do not learn in isolation, but through our interactions with others. His 'zone of proximal development' is the gap between what learners can achieve on their own and what they can achieve in collaboration with others. Both Kohonen (1992) and Little (1996) view the idea of collaborative learning through social interaction as essential for the reflective and analytic capacity that is central to autonomy. Kohonen's (1992) experiential language learning model, based on Kolbian experiential learning principles, involves a cyclical process moving through concrete experience, reflection, abstract conceptualisation and action. The reflective (inner) process interplays with the experiential and active (social) processes to bring about deeper awareness of the self in relation to language learning. Collaboration with others through sharing the insights of reflection can enhance knowledge and lead to deeper understanding. Little (1996: 211), in line with Vygotskian thinking, also claims that 'the development of a capacity for reflection and analysis [...] depends on the internalization of a capacity to participate fully and critically in social interactions'.

For some, the social, human element is seen to have particular significance for language learning. Warriner-Burke (1990: 131) maintains that 'many experienced foreign language professionals think that language and language learning are deeply human experiences' and that 'perhaps it is this human factor that distinguishes foreign language learning from other knowledge ...'. Little's view (2001: 32), however, is that learning is the product of a complex interplay between both social and reflective processes and warns that 'in stressing the importance of the social-interactive dimension [...], it is important not to underplay the importance of the individual-cognitive dimension'. He cites Ackermann (1996: 32) who states that, 'without connection people cannot grow, yet without separation they cannot relate' and talks of learning as 'a dance between diving in and stepping out' (1996: 32). In other words, reflection (stepping out) is as important as social interaction (diving in) for cognitive development and autonomy.

Developing reflection

Reflection is thus an integral part of the process of exercising autonomy, yet for most learners it does not come naturally and needs to be developed. Strategy or learner training programmes, either embedded in the materials or as stand-alone elements, can be effective. However, language 'advising' or 'counselling' is becoming a more widespread and popular option in universities in the UK operating self-access language learning systems (Mozzon-McPherson, 2001). Following an individual needs analysis, the student is shown over a period of time how to develop awareness and reflect on learning through the use of learning logs or diaries, given advice on strategy use, and encouraged to engage in self-evaluation as part of control over learning.

In some institutions teachers take on a timetabled adviser role; in others the advisory service is a separate unit operating in conjunction with teachers. Whatever the particular organisational structure, the shift in the locus of control from teacher to learner, which is central to an autonomous approach, involves a profound change in role, and can bring feelings of insecurity, uncertainty and discomfort (Little, 1995). Nevertheless, teachers in all educational contexts are the human interface between learners and resources and cannot therefore expect or help their learners to develop a capacity for critical reflection unless they have this capacity themselves. In this sense, learner autonomy is dependent on teacher autonomy. In a distance context, the challenges may be greater and the problems intensified, as the social interaction or 'pedagogical dialogue' Little (1995) regards as the 'decisive factor' in the development of learner autonomy can be infinitely more difficult to achieve. Dialogue can to a certain extent be promoted through the materials, but it is perhaps tutor feedback, paper-based or online, that can best create the conditions for learners to become good critical reflectors and develop self-management strategies. But what are the assumptions behind the nature and timing of autonomy within language learning?

Prerequisite or outcome?

Is autonomy a precondition for successful language learning, or a product or goal that emerges from learner exposure to certain contextual influences in language learning? Benson (2001: 9) highlights a common assumption among those working in self-access centres that 'self-access work will automatically lead to autonomy', and, from the producers of self-instructional and distance learning materials, that 'autonomy will be one outcome of these modes of learning'. These are false assumptions if applied generally. As argued in Hurd (1998a: 72–3), '[...] if learners are not trained for autonomy, no amount of surrounding them with resources will foster in them that capacity for active involvement and conscious choice, although it might appear to do so'. Little (2001: 34) also maintains that 'the pursuit of autonomy in formal learning environments must entail explicit conscious processes; otherwise we leave its development to chance'. Some studies into distance learning (Hurd, 2000b; White, 1995, 1999) have cited the importance of the context itself as a key factor in the development of autonomy in the learner: 'A self-instruction context for learning does not automatically equate with learner autonomy, but autonomy may arise and develop within the learner as a response to the specific demands of a self-instruction context' (White, 1995: 209). The distance learning context requires a certain degree of autonomy in order for a learner to function at all, which ties in well with Little's assertion (2001: 35) that 'essentially, the only way of becoming autonomous is to be autonomous'. The British Open University has over 30 years of experience in addressing these issues. How does it structure its materials and support for language learners?

Open and Distance Language Learning at the Open University (UK)

In the 1980s, Holmberg's idea of distance learning as a 'guided didactic conversation' in which a relationship is established to 'involve the student emotionally so that he or she takes a personal interest in the subject and its problems' (Holmberg, 1983: 117) became widely accepted as a basis for writing materials for distance learners. Specially written open and distance materials play a central role in all OU courses as the teaching voice, the link between teacher and learner. In other words, they carry out all the functions of a teacher in a more conventional setting. Derek Rowntree (1990: 11) sums these up as: 'guiding, motivating, intriguing, expounding, explaining, provoking, reminding, asking questions, discussing alternative answers, appraising each learner's progress, and giving appropriate remedial help'. Particular attention is paid to the design of print materials, both academic and visual, so that they are easy to follow and attractive to work with. Any audio-visual input is carefully researched, designed and produced to work with the other materials, so that the overall course is an integrated whole. A structured and supported approach ensures that students know what they are expected to do and at what point. In OU language courses, each activity or sequence of activities is introduced by an 'organiser' that gives a brief rationale for each activity or activities. This is designed to help students understand why they are being invited to take part in particular activities and how these fit into the wider structure, so that they can become more aware of the language learning process, begin to set their own goals and learn to monitor their own progress.

Courses, students and materials

The Centre for Modern Languages at the Open University (OU), renamed the Department of Languages in 1999, was set up in 1991 and offers a Diploma in French, German or Spanish that students may count towards a BA or BSc Open degree or one of the named degrees in Modern Language Studies, Humanities, European Studies or International Studies. There are around 7000 students registered on one or more of the 13 language courses currently available, making the OU the biggest language provider in the UK university sector. Since November 2003, students have also been able to study at beginners' level. A beginners' course plus the next stage together make up the Certificate at Level 1.

Students register from all parts of the UK and from Continental Western Europe (CWE). The typical distance language learner at the OU is in the 35–50 age range, in work and with family commitments. The University is 'open' in that there are no prerequisites to courses. Students may, if they wish, take advantage of the Self-Assessment Tests offered in all three languages, to help them determine their level of proficiency. Course materials include course books and recorded video, audio and CD extracts. There are also print support materials in the form of course and study guides, transcripts, study charts and supplementary notes, and a web-based guide to OU study containing general information and study tips. Assessment consists of Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs), some formative, that assess both written and oral skills, and are submitted on a regular basis to the tutor for marking and feedback. On some courses there are also Student Marked Assignments (SMAs), which allow learners to assess grammatical and semantic knowledge themselves as they progress through the course. Detailed feedback is given to help students understand and correct their mistakes, analyse and address more serious errors, and develop the skills of self-correction and self-monitoring. A two-part written and oral examination completes the assessment for the year.

Learner support

For those who choose or have no option but to study at a distance the demands are great: 'distance learners must regulate and oversee the rate and direction of their learning to a much greater degree than classroom learners' (White, 1994: 12–13). But support is available to those who want it. First, there is Student Services, a dedicated unit that operates in all the 13 OU regional centres across the UK, using staff trained to advise on a range of issues concerning academic study. Second, each student is assigned to a designated tutor in their region, who can be contacted at agreed times for advice, and who conducts regular tutorials and the occasional dayschool at one of the regional centres. Tutorials are optional and are conducted either face-to-face, online or by telephone, depending on the particular course and personal circumstances of individual students.

(Continues...)

Excerpted from Distance Education and Languages by Börje Holmberg, Monica Shelley, Cynthia White. Copyright © 2005 B. Holmberg, M. Shelley, C. White and the authors of individual chapters. Excerpted by permission of Multilingual Matters.
All rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.
Excerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.

Edition details

• Publisher: Multilingual Matters
• Publication date: 2005
• Language: English
• ISBN 10: 1853597759
• ISBN 13: 9781853597756
• Binding: Paperback
• Number of pages: 360
• Editor: Holmberg Börje, Shelley Monica, White Cynthia J.